Whilst men fighting over women is a common occurrence today, scientists claim they have found evidence of prehistoric battles over females that were far more deadly.

Several Archaeologists had argued that women have long motivated cycles of violence and blood feuds throughout history, but there has never really been solid archaeological evidence to support this view.

However, while re-examining a three metre long burial pit containing 34 skeletons of people who had been attacked by a rival tribe around 5000BC; and then discovered by archaeologists in the 1980’s, researchers were able to work out the origins of the victims tossed into the mass grave near Talheim, in south-west of Germany.

Then, using a relatively new method, they were able to distinguish one tribe from another; showing that neighbouring tribes were prepared to kill their male rivals, in order to obtain women, about 7,000 years ago.

Most of the skeletons bore marks to the left side of the skull, indicating that they were probably hit with a stone axe, and each had been bound before being murdered, while others may have been killed by arrow-wounds from behind as they apparently tried to flee.

Scientists from Durham University, in collaboration with researchers from University College London, University of Wisconsin and a German government body, analysed the Strontium, Carbon and Oxygen isotope “signatures” of the skeleton’s teeth, which gave vital information about the victim’s geological origin and diet. This analysis showed that the men and children all came from the same local tribe, but all the women were from different tribes. The researchers concluded from this information that the absence of local females meant they had been spared execution and had been captured instead. They then speculated that capturing the women could even have been the primary motive for the attack.

Lead researcher, Dr Alex Bentley, from Durham University’s Anthropology Department, said:

It seems this community was specifically targeted, as could happen in a cycle of revenge between rival groups.

Although resources and population were undoubtedly factors in central Europe around that time, women appear to be the immediate reason for the attack. Our analysis points to the local women being regarded as somehow special and were therefore kept alive.

Prior to this study, published in the journal Antiquity, archaeological evidence suggested prehistoric violence was largely triggered by disputes over resources, overcrowding and property.

Dr Bentley added:

There is a theory that the most violent feuds in developing communities are motivated by women and pigs and this would slot into that theory.

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Posted by Jonathan as Anthropology, History at 12:28 AM EDT

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Numerous animal preparations with little or no nutritious value have been used as aphrodisiacs, throughout the years.

According to a medieval recipe, black ants would be dried, and mixed with olive oil immediately before consumption. Lizards were also highly regarded by both Arabs and Southern Europeans - they would dry the lizard, pulverise it and consume the powder with a sweet white wine. Alternatively, the lizard could also be the main constituent of a more elaborate dish.

In “The Perfumed Garden”, it is suggested that rubbing the penis and the vulva with the bile of a jackal will make those parts more willing for sex. The Perfumed Garden goes on to note that a man can melt down fat from the hump of a camel and rub his penis with it, just before sex. It will then perform wonders, and the woman will praise it for its work; the book asserts (or, at least it will act as a lubricant).

Leeches were used to increase the size of the penis - They are put in a bottle, which is kept enclosed in the warmth of a dunghill until the leeches have turned into a homogenous mass - Then this substance is used as a liniment for anointing the penis.

According to Pliny, the gall of a boar would stimulate an erection. And, in some Asian countries, even gallstones are believed to be an aphrodisiac, and therefore can have a market value of many tens of thousands of dollars per kilo.

The flesh of the Nilgiri Languor and the lion-tailed macaque is reputed for its aphrodisiacal properties, according to Ramachandran et al. (1987).

In Hong Kong, certain shark species can fetch hundreds of dollars apiece, because of the demand for shark fins as an aphrodisiac. The fins are removed, dried for two days and then cooked into shark fin soup.

Asses’ milk had a reputation as an aphrodisiac amongst the Romans and Arabs, but mainly when used topically. Rubbing the genitals twice a day with the milk allegedly had beneficial effects; and according to “The Perfumed Garden”, the virile member would become “uncommonly strong and vigorous”. It is also supposed to have effects on women - Poppea, the wife of the Roman emperor Nero, is said to have bathed in it.

Ambergris: is a product derived from certain whales, and can occasionally be found on ocean beaches. It is extremely expensive and used for perfume production. According to Arabic folklore it is also an aphrodisiac. Dr. SA Taha and colleagues reported that in rats, ambrein, a constituent of ambergris, produced “recurrent episodes of penile erection, a dose-dependent, vigorous and repetitive increase in intromissions and an increased anogenital investigatory behaviour“.

Antlers: Most likely because of their similarity to an erect penis, horns and antlers have long been used as aphrodisiacs, especially in Eastern Asia. Reindeer shed their antlers annually, and these abandoned reindeer antlers are often imported to Japan as aphrodisiacs. The Tibetan Red Deer (Cervus elaphus wallichi) has long been listed as extinct by the World Conservation Union, but a herd of 200 animals was discovered fairly recently about 100 miles east of Lhasa, Tibet, on an alpine meadow, at an altitude of about 4,000 meters. The reason for their earlier supposed extinction (and their current threat), is that they are coveted for their velvety antlers, which are highly prized as aphrodisiacs.

Chan Su: is a traditional Chinese medication used, amongst other things, as a topical anaesthetic. It is prepared from the skin of the toad Bufo bufo gargarizans and contains bufadienolides and bufotenine. Several fatalities have been reported over the years, as a result of ingestion of this drug (the deaths were caused by cardiac dysrhythmia). Even when used topically, Chan Su is not in any way an amorous adjuvant, when ingested, its contents of cardio-active steroids such as resibufogenin, bufalin and cinobufagin, is certain to have detrimental effects.

Oysters: During the time of the Roman Empire oysters enjoyed an aphrodisiac reputation, which has only increased over the ages. Oysters are low in fat and high in minerals, and so are therefore quite healthy foods. Phosphorus, Iodine and Zinc are beneficial, especially Zinc, which is said to increase sperm and testosterone production, as well as the secretion of vaginal lubricant.

On the other hand, according to Norman Lewis in his book “Aphrodisiacs I Have Known“, a group of male pearl-divers on the island of Kamaran (off the Arabian coast) get most of their nourishment from oysters - and have very low sex drives.

One reason for the popularity of seafood, and oysters in particular, could be that such food generally is light, so you do not end up over-stuffed (and then underperforming) after half a dozen oysters. Casanova is said to have been a firm believer in oysters, eating fifty of them raw every morning in his bath, together with the lady he fancied at that moment.

Rhino Horn: Powdered rhinoceros horns are regarded as something of a panacea in Eastern Asia, believed effective against anything from nosebleeds and headaches to diphtheria and food poisoning. In addition, they are widely believed to increase male sexual endurance, including the ability to achieve an erection. However, it should be noted that the original rhino aphrodisiac was the dried penis, and not the horn. Further, widespread poaching of rhinos has led to all five rhino species being included on the list of endangered animals.

A rhino’s horn is not attached to its skull, and so is therefore not a true horn, but a growth of densely compressed dermal fibres, made up of keratin; which is the same material that is found in hair and nails. Consequently, consumption of powdered nail clippings could be expected to provide more or less the same results as a rhino’s horn.

Inagaki and Oida investigated the low molecular weight constituents of rhino horn, and found Sugar, Phosphorous and Ethanolamine are present along with several free amino acids, such as Aspartic acid, Threonine, Ornithine, Lysine, Histidine and Arginine (which, people have speculated, may increase the intensity of sensation during sex).

The use of rhino horns (and tiger bones) for medical purposes was declared illegal by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, in 1993.

Snake Blood: In parts of Eastern Asia snake blood is used to boost the flagging male libido. The exact snake species doesn’t really matter as long as it’s truly poisonous, although cobras seem to be favoured. It is claimed that the best effects are obtained from fresh blood, and in Malaysia, special parlours exist where live snakes are served. The snake tail is pierced and the customer sucks blood from it for a few minutes to increase his capacity for love-making. No information is available on how often the same snake can be reused.

Tiger preparations: Tiger whiskers are used as an aphrodisiac in Indonesia, but in Malaysia the same preparation is regarded as a strong poison. In Eastern Asia, many tiger parts are considered to be powerful aphrodisiacs, including bones, fat, liver and penis. No doubt after consumption, just like the tiger, you will be able to make love for a full 15 seconds!

Animal genitalia aphrodisiacs

Organotherapy was popular with the Romans, for treating sexual problems. This therapy is based on the belief that the consumption of a healthy animal organ might cure illnesses in the corresponding human organ. Thus, the Romans ate all kinds of animal genitalia, including penises, wombs and testes, from animals ranging from monkeys to cocks. Apicus, in his “De re coquinaria” includes several recipes for stuffed womb of pig and cow, mainly as dishes to increase fertility.

The use of deer genitals as an aphrodisiac dates back to antiquity. Hippocrates recommends the penis, an organ that according to Dioscoride, can also be used as an antidote against snake bites.

Preparations of deer penis were included in several pharmacopoeias as late as the 18th century, for example, in Sweden, Pharmacopoeia Wirtenbergensis, published in 1750, recommends “Cervi Priapus” against poisoning, bladder stones and blood in the urine, and also claims that this is an excellent aphrodisiac.

Deer testicles, “Testiculi cervi”, were less popular, but nevertheless included in the famous “Pharmacologia” by Dale, published in 1696, as an aphrodisiac.

Finally, an indirect use of animal genitalia is suggested in “The Perfumed Garden”: Boil an ass’s penis together with onions and a large quantity of corn. Feed this dish to fowl, which you eat afterwards. This will apparently increase the size and capacity of a man’s penis.

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Posted by Jonathan as Biology, History at 4:00 PM EDT

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The basic rule for selecting aphrodisiacal foodstuffs is simple: the more expensive the substance, the higher the probability that people will believe in it. Although, if somebody is prepared to spoon-feed you caviar, it might suggest that the person is seriously interested in you, which in turn, could stimulate your interest in that person.

Asafoetida: is a preparation made from the plant Ferula foetida (Umbelliferae), also known as devil’s dung. It occurs both as a light brown resin and as a powder. Besides being an aphrodisiac it is also used as a laxative and a colic cure, although the main use is as a spice in cooking. The taste is peculiar - either you love it or you hate it.

Cloves: are the dried flower buds of Jambosa caryophyllus, also called Eugenia caryophyllata and Caryophyllus aromaticus. They have been considered an aphrodisiac in Asia and China since the 3rd century B.C. and even in Europe, they acquired fame. The Danish medieval herbalist H. Harpenstreng noted the value of cloves, stating that they “makes the man desire the woman”, and that they promote digestion.

The Swedish herbalist Anders Månsson Rydaholm wrote in 1642, in “En myckit nyttigh Örta-Book” that “if a man loses his ability, he should stay sober and drink milk spiced with 5 grams of cloves. This will fortify him and make him desire his wife.”

The main constituent of cloves and oil of cloves is eugenol, but small quantities of furfural, vanillin and methyl-amyl-ketone are also present. Eugenol is a high-boiling liquid with a spicy, pungent odour and taste.

Fennel: Foeniculum vulgare (Umbelliferae), was cultivated in ancient Egypt. The “Besbes seeds” mentioned in The Ebers Papyrus (dating from 1550 BC) are believed to be fennel seeds.

The Greeks regarded fennel as a potent sexual stimulant. During the Dionysus festivities, crowns of fennel leaves were worn, and leaves and seeds were used as aphrodisiacs (A. Tschirch: Handbuch der Pharmacognosie, Leipzig 1909-17). A medieval Danish manuscript (H. Harpestreng: Danske Laegebog) states that old vipers eat fennel for rejuvenation; so, it was therefore claimed equally useful for old men. Wedeck, in A Dictionary of Aphrodisiacs, quotes a Hindu prescription for sexual vigour containing fennel juice, milk, honey, ghee, liquorice and sugar. Further, he states that fennel soup is reputed in some Mediterranean regions to stimulate desire.

The chief low molecular weight constituent of fennel seeds is anethole, also known as anise camphor or Monasirup, but the seeds (and the rest of the plant) also contain the terpenes fenchone, pinene and limonene.

Fenugreek: The pods of Fenugreek, Trigonella foenum-graecum (Leguminoseae), which grows in Southwest Asia and around the Eastern part of the Mediterranean resemble goat’s antlers. Consequently, according to the Doctrine of Signatures, they are regarded as a remedy for impotence, and were included in the earliest list of Chinese medical plants. The roasted pods are eaten in many parts of the world, but can also be used as a starting point for the preparation of various dishes.

Gow Kee: The leaves of Lycium chinense (Solanaceae), also known as Chu Chi, Matrimony vine and Box thorn, are well-known in Chinese herbal medicine for their ability to stimulate libido and increase male endurance. The bright green leaves are ovate to lanceolate, up to 8 cm long and edible, but rather tasteless. For use, 25 grams of Gow Kee and 25 grams of finely chopped ginger are boiled with 500 ml of water until the volume of the liquid has been reduced to one-third. Strain the infusion and drink it as a tea.

Hemp seeds: Cannabis sativa, is a plant that is very popular. As an aphrodisiac, and according to popular belief, the most powerful preparation is the roasted and salted hemp seeds. In Ukrainian tradition, it was customary to feed the bridegroom roasted hemp seeds during the wedding dinner; although seeds could also be served as a part of a special wedding bread or as an ingredient in a wedding night drink.

Herb Paris: also known as True love, Paris quadrifolia has long been used as an aphrodisiac, but should be handled with extreme care since the seeds and berries are narcotic, and in large doses can produce nausea, vomiting and even delirium; neither of which will contribute to successful love-making. In Russia, the leaves of the plant have also been prescribed for madness.

Nutmeg: also known as myristica or Nux moschata is the ripe seed of Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae), a tree native to Southern Asia and the Spice islands. The seed coat is removed before drying, and becomes the spice ‘Mace’.

Nutmeg is supposed to be a “Legal hallucinogenic”, and has been used for this purpose in prisons. However, the side effects of the high doses required can be severe and completely overshadow the desired effects. It is alleged to have a subtle aphrodisiac effect in far smaller doses (less than half a nut should suffice), and has been used for such purposes by Hindus, Arabs, Greeks and Romans. In the Orient it was especially highly prized amongst women, and according to the Indian herbalist H. K. Bakhru, nutmeg mixed with honey and a half-boiled egg will prolong the duration of the sexual act, if taken an hour before intercourse.

The compound allegedly responsible for the hallucinogenic and possibly also for the alleged aphrodisiacal effects of nutmeg is myristicin, 4-methoxy-6-(2-propenyl)-1,3-benzodixole. It has some structural similarity with mescaline (the hallucinogen from peyote cactus). Myristicin also occurs in parsley and carrot, although mainly in the seeds, and at far lower concentrations.

Pepper: The aphrodisiacal qualities of pepper are not quite clear. The name pepper was long used as a collective name for all spices imported to Europe (in contrast to the herbal spices cultivated in Europe). Thus, older references to pepper as an aphrodisiac could actually concern a different spice.

Nowadays, Pepper is a collective name for various forms of the fruit of Piper nigrum (Piperaceae). Black pepper is the dried, unripe fruits, and white pepper the dried, ripe fruits, green pepper is from the ripe fruit and rose pepper is from the unripe fruit. Additionally, if the fruits are preserved in brine, milder forms are obtained.

The reputation of pepper being an aphrodisiac goes back to Antiquity, when it was used by Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The Arabs not only added pepper to food, but used it other ways. According to “The Perfumed Garden”, you should: Chew a little pepper or cardamom-grains of the large species; put a certain quantity of it upon the head of your member before intercourse, and this will produce for you, as well as for the woman, a matchless enjoyment.

A way to increase the size of the penis is, according to the same source, to prepare a powder out of pepper, lavender, galangal and musk, mix it with honey and preserved ginger, and then rub the penis vigorously with it. [The penis] will then grow large and brawny, and afford the woman a marvellous feeling of voluptuousness.

Indian sources recommend the daily consumption of a glass of milk with six crushed black peppercorns and four crushed almonds. This allegedly will act as both a nerve tonic and an aphrodisiac.

The pungent principles of pepper are first and foremost the stereo-isomeric pair of chemicals piperine (E,E form) and chavicine (Z,Z form). It is believed that the loss of pungency of ground pepper during storage is due to the isomerization of chavicine into piperine. Other pungent substances, present in pepper, are piperettine and the somewhat volatile piperidine (which can also be formed by alkaline treatment of piperine).

Saffron: is the stigmas of Crocus sativus (Iridaceae), and one of the worlds most expensive spices, it can reputedly make erogenous zones even more sensitive as well as having a hormone-like effect. It is not known which of the constituents are responsible for saffron’s reputation as an aphrodisiac; however, the orange colour is due to crocin, a di-gentiobiose ester of crocetin, a carotenoid compound. Both crocin and crocetin have been shown to play an important role in the sex processes of algae of the Chlamydomonas group.

Sarsaparilla: is a collective name for preparations of various Smilax species. Mexican sarsaparilla is prepared from Smilax aristolochiaefolia, whereas Jamaican or Honduran sarsaparilla originates from S. regelii and Ecuadorian sarsaparilla from S. febrifuga. The plants are large perennial climbing or trailing vines, growing from short, thick underground stems. It is these stems that are collected and dried in the sun before use.

The root has been used not only as an aphrodisiac, but as a syphilis antidote, competing with mercury derivatives. Today, its main use is to flavour soft drinks such as Root beer.

Valerian: Extracts or teas prepared from valerian Valeriana officinalis, are mainly used in herbal medicine as sedatives. However, a German herbal book from the 14th century suggests another possibility: “Take valerian in the mouth and kiss anybody you want; in that way you will win love”.

Vanilla: is the cured, full-grown, unripe fruit of an orchid, Vanilla planifolia. Its name derives from the Spanish word vainila, a diminutive of vaina meaning vagina (or pod). Vanilla was used by the Aztecs to flavour chocolate, which they extracted from the seeds of Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), a tree native to the area around the Gulf of Mexico and northern South America.

It is a well-known powerful aphrodisiac; N.J. Berlin stated in a commentary to the Swedish pharmacopoeia (1849) that it acted through its odour as much as through its taste. It is important to use the natural product, since Synthetic vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzaldehyde) is far cheaper, but less effective, especially nowadays when it is synthesised from the waste (lignin) of the wood pulp industry. Vanilla essence (extracted from real vanilla pods) can be added to a bath to produce a mild love-arousing effect, especially when you and your partner take the bath together.

Wild vanilla: Preparations of North American wild vanilla, Trilisa odoratissima, are said to have aphrodisiacal properties, and also to induce erotic dreams. The plant has been used (without success) to treat Malaria; possibly the pleasant side-effects were discovered during these trials.

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Posted by Jonathan as Biology, History at 2:52 AM EDT

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Palaeontologists believe a rope-like organism called Funisia dorothea, which lived on the seabed up to 570 million years ago, was the first creature on earth to have sex.

Fossilised remains of the primitive tubular creatures have been uncovered in the Australian outback, from what was once seabed, and have put back the history of sex by about 30 million years. But, whilst the experience was unlikely to have been earth-moving for the animals, the discovery has excited scientists who said that the fossils open a window on one of the most ancient ecosystems, indicating that the planet’s earliest animal ecosystem was complex and included sexual reproduction.

What has gotten the scientists excited is that, until now, Palaeobiologists were generally agreed that the earliest multicellular animals were simple, and that strategies which organisms use today to survive, reproduce and grow in numbers had arisen over time due to many factors, including evolutionary and ecological pressures, imposed by competition for food and other resources.

But in describing the ecology and reproductive strategies of Funisia, the researchers found that the organism had multiple means of growing and propagating - similar to strategies used by most invertebrate organisms for propagation today.

Researchers identified the creature’s capacity for sexual rather than asexual reproduction, because fossil specimens were found in groups that all appeared to be the same age. Since they had all found a foothold in a sandy seabed at the same time, it was considered they must have resulted from a simultaneous spawning instead of uncoordinated asexual births.

Funisia dorothea would have grown in abundance, covering the sea floor, during the Neoproterozoic era, which ended about 540million years ago and lasted for about 100million years of Earth’s history, during which no predators or scavengers were around. Funisia would have lived in dense groups of similar size and age animals, much like Mussels and Oysters do, today.

Mary Droser, one of the Palaeontologists involved in the study and a professor of Earth sciences at the University of California in Riverside, first discovered the organism in 2005 near Ediacara, South Australia, and gave it its name - Funisia after “rope” in Latin - Dorothea after her 80-year-old mother, Dorothy, who took care of the palaeontologist’s young children and cooked for the research team on several digs.

Mrs Droser snr. said she was “thrilled to tears” at having a fossil named in her honour, and thought it appropriate that the ancient animal was the first to have sex:

My family thinks it’s humorous. I have 11 grandchildren - obviously reproduction is a good thing.

Professor Droser and James Gehling of the South Australia Museum reported in the journal Science that Funisia was a soft-bodied creature that grew as 30cm-long tubes. Once the tubular animals had fixed themselves to the seabed, either as a larva or a fertilised egg, they were immobile and unable to go off in search of mates. They were also unable to identify a mouth or any other recognisable anatomy.

Professor Droser said:

In general, individuals of an organism grow close to each other, in part, to ensure reproductive success,

It is common modern ecological strategy, and these guys were doing it in the earliest animal ecosystems on this planet,

In Funisia, we are very likely seeing sexual reproduction in Earth’s early ecosystem – possibly the very first instance of sexual reproduction in animals on our planet. How Funisia appears in the fossils clearly shows that ecosystems were complex very early in the history of animals on Earth.

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Posted by Jonathan as Biology, History at 2:33 AM EST

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Sticking with the theme of lists, although this is in part because I became involved in a rather silly discussion about strange marriages with someone recently; here’s my take on the most bizarre marriages that I’ve been able to track down.

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Posted by Jonathan as History, Miscellaneous at 4:56 PM EST

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Christmas / New Year often seems to be a time when the media decides to pull out various random lists. So, not wanting to break a perfectly silly tradition, and because I would suspect that any good Seductionist would be rather interested to know a little background about their favourite piece of furniture. Here is a short list, that I stumbled across quite some time back, but which might keep you amused for a minute or two, possibly more:

1. In the late 1980s, soul singer Alexander O’Neal would perform some of his songs on a lavish bed which was part of his stage set. Ladies from the audience could join him for some singing-related hot fun.
2. Van Gogh’s crooked bed is the main feature of one of his most celebrated paintings ‘The Bedroom at Arles‘.
3. Most countries have a host of apocryphal beds in which someone famous has slept. In Scotland, it is Mary Queen of Scots, in the US, George Washington. If all the beds in which Washington slept were laid end to end and divided by nine, he would still have to have lived to a hundred and fifty three.
4. In Roald Dahl’s Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Charlie’s four grandparents spend their lives in one communal bed, two at each end.
5. Better known for her book The Borrowers, Mary Norton also wrote the two children’s books on which the Disney film Bedknobs and Broomsticks was based. These stories tell of the adventures (based around a magic flying bed) of three children and their aunt’s trainee Witch neighbour, Miss Price.
6. Artist Tracey Emin’s ‘My Bed‘ exhibit of 1998 is one of the most notorious artworks of recent years. It is a representation of, err, her bed, complete with stains and rumples, and the detritus to be found around it (vodka bottles, condoms etc).
7. The Great Bed of Ware is a huge four-poster bed found in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. According to legend, covered beds were necessary to stop sleepers being bothered by creatures (cats, creepy crawlies, etc.) falling out of the thatched roof-space above them.
8. In Suite 1742 of the Fairmont Hotel, in Montreal, John Lennon and Yoko Ono staged their most famous bed-in, spending eight days in bed, during which they wrote and recorded ‘Give Peace a Chance‘ with the help of Petula Clark and Timothy Leary. World peace, naturally, was achieved just moments later.
9. In the mid 1950s, the artist Robert Rauschenberg created ‘Bed‘, an artwork consisting of a bed hung on a wall like a painting.
10. 18th century charlatan James Graham built a ‘Temple of Health’ in London, designed to part the rich and their money. The main attraction was the 50-pounds-per-night ‘Celestial Bed‘, supposed to cure impotence or infertility. The mattress was stuffed in part with stallions’ tales and an electrical current ran through the headboard and supposedly filled the air with magnetic charges which were thought beneficial to sexual health.
11. In Hans Christian Andersen’s tale, ‘The Princess and the Pea‘, the girl proves herself a princess by remaining sleepless due to feeling the pea, even through twenty mattresses.
12. John Denver sang of ‘Grandma’s Feather Bed‘ which was ‘nine feet high and six feet wide, soft as a downy chick / It was made from the feathers of forty eleven geese, took a whole bolt of cloth for the tick / It’d hold eight kids an’ four hound dogs and a piggy we stole from the shed / We didn’t get much sleep but we had a lot of fun on grandma’s feather bed’.

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Posted by Jonathan as History, Humour, Miscellaneous at 11:29 PM EST

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Jane Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice begins with the proposition that “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife,” although it later transpires that it is the women in the story, who are actually desirous of rich husbands.

Anyway, the same idea in one form or another has been repeated at various times before and since. Notably by Frank Pedersen, of the University of Delaware in 1991, who suggested that people would change many aspects of their behaviour as a consequence of competition introduced by sex-ratio fluctuations; for men, this apparently would result in greater fidelity, greater commitment to a career, and increased investment in children, when women are scarce.

There has however been little or no attempt to provide any evidence for this theory until recently, when a paper ‘Driving a hard bargain: sex ratio and male marriage success in a historical US population’, was published in the journal Biology Letters by PhD candidate Thomas Pollet and Dr Daniel Nettle of Newcastle University, who suggest that a man’s wealth is particularly important, if he wants to settle down, according to their study of the “marriage market”.

The researchers examined data from the American 1910 census, claiming that in this period, demographically, the United States had not settled down. And therefore the differences in sex ratios found throughout the states would enable them to compare the socioeconomic status of married and un-married males.

The study took a sample of one man in 250 from the census and assigned him a socioeconomic status score of between zero and 96, based on a scale drawn up in 1950 (which was the closest available to the census date).

Then, mathematical models predicted that when men and women are in equal supply, the men who are married will have a slightly higher socioeconomic status than unmarried men. Whilst when men and women are in unequal supply, the marriage prospects of a male pauper would be “drastically reduced”.

Here we show that if men are abundant, this will influence the market value of their desired traits, that is, women can demand more.

As the sex ratio increases, married men are predicted to need up two or three times the socioeconomic status of unmarried men.

According to the researchers, and by way of illustration, in states where the sexes were equal in number, 56% of low-status men were married by the age of 30, as opposed to 60% of high-status men. When there were 110 men for every 100 women (in Arizona, for example), the women were more choosy, and only 24% of low-status men were married by 30 compared with 46% of high-status men.

Mr Pollet said:

Thus, much about the varying ethos of male and female behaviour across populations and across time could in principle be explained with reference to the sex ratio, these questions are ripe for future investigation, but our study has clearly established the more limited fact that sex ratio fluctuations in modern humans can put one sex in the driving seat and allow them to drive a hard bargain.

On the other hand, the researchers could just have re-discovered that women aren’t as willing as men to live in harsh environments, since (to use the example of Arizona in 1910) conditions would have been rather more desert-like than today (especially without air-conditioning), and most likely full of prospectors, and miners (who are statistically more likely to be men) trying to find the next gold rush, rather than marry a woman.

The study also assumes that marriage is the ultimate ideal for a man, and confuses being rich with having social status. These factors may turn out to be small limitations, but it seems to me that the study would be comparing the marriage prospects of New York bankers from rich families with the more modest livelihood of a Cowboy, or the unpredictable career of a Prospector / Miner.

It also appears to me, that wealth aside, many of the professions a less well off man might choose for his career could expose him to risks that would shorten his life expectancy considerably. I.e., if he doesn’t live long enough to hit 30, because he’s killed in a mine collapse, shot by Red Indians or crippled in some sort of riding accident, then his chances of getting married automatically go to zero.

A better way to examine the American Census data, especially since American Censuses are not subject to a 100-year closure period, as in the UK, could be to compare the 1910 census with the 1920 census and the 1930 census. The 1920’s were a period of great prosperity for America, whereas 1930 would be a year after the start of America’s great depression. So, comparing these periods of time would seem (to me) to give a rather truer picture of whether of not relative prosperity changes a man’s probability of marriage.

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Posted by Jonathan as History, Sociobiology at 6:15 PM EST

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Today’s Grauniad has some excerpts from one of the oldest seduction guides around, Ovid’s didactic poem Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), which was originally published, sometime between 2BC and AD2.

The article points out a number of Roman achievements: straight roads, under-floor heating, excellent sewage systems; but more importantly, they invented romantic love. And, Ovid has left us a detailed, scandalous, hilarious, cynical, explicit yet still user-friendly handbook on how to find it.

So, here’s Ovid’s (really quite simple) three step guide to meeting your ideal partner:

Part I : Get ready - get a makeover

For women, he advises no body hair:

And then, concerning makeup:

He continues, on the topic of hairdos:

For the final part of the makeover, Ovid suggests learning some Latin poetry, which luckily, you’re doing right now.

Part II : Get out into town

You wont meet someone special sitting at home, so create opportunities to meet people. Be bold, suggests Ovid: talk to the pretty girls that hang out at the temple of Palatine Apollo or in Pompey’s portico.

Men should take into account flattering lighting, when you’re meeting girls:

How do you approach someone you fancy? Easy, says old Ovid, here’s an example:
You’re sitting next to a pretty girl at the races…

Part III : Keep going

So, you’ve met a potential lover, but how do you actually seduce them?
Ovid states that victory is all about self-belief. Imagine yourself to be invincible, and chances are you will be.

Keep in touch with your new love interest:

And:

If you followed all the poet’s steps closely, you should have pulled. If not, keep trying. Remember, Rome wasn’t built in a day.

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Posted by Jonathan as Art & Literature, History at 11:47 PM EDT

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Browsing through some fairly old research, I was fascinated to discover a psychological experiment carried out in 1978, and again in 1982. It was then published in 1989, in the Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality.

Clark, R. D., III & Hatfield, E. (1989), Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers, Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39-55*.

*A PDF copy of the complete review and experiment is available from the link above. But I have reproduced the experimental portion of the study below, because I thought it was so interesting (and the PDF copy isn’t especially clear).

Mysteriously, the paper doesn’t explain exactly why the research was conducted in the first place; although I do believe that this could be the first time that Scientists have taken a serious interest in the craft of ‘picking up’ members of the opposite sex.

To summarise the experiment, five women and four men were sent, one at a time, onto a college campus. Each approached strangers of the opposite sex, and said: “I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive.” They then invited the strangers either to go on a date, or to come over to their apartment, or to have sex with them.

This experiment was performed twice, and the results produced were very similar on both occasions (which indicates that the data is reliable). The report concludes: “The great majority of men were willing to have a sexual liaison with the women who approached them. Not one woman agreed to a sexual liaison.”

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METHODConfederates. Study #1 was conducted in 1978 and Study #2 was conducted in 1982. In both studies, five college women and four college men from an experimental social psychology class served as experimenters. All had volunteered to approach subjects who were alone at five different locations on campus. The confederates were approximately 22 years of age and were neatly dressed in casual attire. The physical attractiveness of both the female and male confederates varied from slightly unattractive to moderately attractive. Ratings of the confederates’ attractiveness were found to have no effect on the results and thus we will not discuss this variable further.Subjects. In both Study #1 and Study #2, subjects were 48 men and 48 women who were on the campus of Florida State University. Sixteen subjects were randomly assigned to each of the six conditions.Procedure. The confederates stood on one of five college quadrangles, and approached members of the opposite sex, who were total strangers. Only one requestor made a request in each area at any one time. The requestors were instructed to approach only subjects who were attractive enough that they would be willing to actually sleep with them, if given the opportunity (assuming, of course, that they were appropriate on other grounds as well). On a scale of 1 to 9 (1 = “Very unattractive”; 9 = “Very attractive”), female confederates rated the subjects M = 7.30. Male confederates rated the subjects M = 7.70. (These ratings were not significantly different; t < 1.00.) The confederates’ ratings made it clear that they only selected “moderately” to “very attractive” male and female subjects.Once a subject was selected, the requestor approached him/her and said: “I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive.” The confederate then asked subjects one of three questions: “Would you go out with me tonight?” or “Would you come over to my apartment tonight?” or “Would you go to bed with me tonight?” Thus, this procedure resulted in a 2 x 3 factorial design [Sex of requestor (2 levels) x Type of request (3 levels)].

The requestor carried a notebook which had one of the three requests written on a separate page. The type of request was randomly determined for each requestor. After the selection of a subject, each requestor flipped a page in the notebook to see what type of request was to be made.

The requests were made during weekdays to decrease the probability of subjects refusing because they had dates or other social obligations. Subjects were not approached between class periods or during rainy weather.

Subjects were debriefed and thanked for their participation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A 2 x 3 x 2 multidimensional chi-square analysis was used to analyse the data (Winer, 1971). In Study #1, conducted in 1978, the results indicated that men were more likely to say yes to each type of invitation than were women (65% versus 21%, Χ² (1) = 18.78, p < .001). However, as can be clearly seen in Table 1, Sex of requestor/Sex of subject interacted with the type of invitation, Χ² (2) = 29.33, p < .001. Whereas, both males and females were willing to go out on a date, it was only the males who agreed to go to the females apartment and go to bed with her, Χ² (1) = 9.30, p < .01 and Χ² 12.52, p < .001, respectively.

Table 1: Study #1, 1978
Percentage of Compliance With Each Request

	Type of Request
Sex of Requestor	Date	Apartment	Bed
Male	56%	6%	0%
Female	50%	69%	75%

In Study #2, conducted in 1982, we secured results that were almost identical with those described above. Once again, men were more likely to respond positively to each type of request than were women (63% versus 17%, Χ² (1) = 21.08, p < .001). However, once again, as can be seen in Table 2, Sex of requestor/Sex of subject interacted with the type of request, Χ² (2) = 23.65, p < .001. Whereas, both males and females were equally willing to accept a date, Χ² (1) = 0, n. s., it was only males who agreed to go to a female’s apartment (Χ² (1) = 16.76, p < .001) or to go to bed with her (Χ² (1) = 16.76, p < .001).

Table 2: Study #2, 1982
Percentage of Compliance With Each Request

	Type of Request
Sex of Requestor	Date	Apartment	Bed
Male	50%	0%	0%
Female	50%	69%	69%

In both studies, we found then that men and women responded as traditionalists would expect them to. Men readily accepted a sexual invitation. Women were extremely reluctant to do so.

We now know that this is so. We are not quite sure why this is so. It may be that, as sociobiologists suggest, women are eager for love and commitment. Men are eager for sexual activity. Such theorizing is consistent with the data. Both men and women were willing to date a total stranger. (When one goes on a date, one has the opportunity to asses the probability that a loving relationship could occur.) Women were unwilling to go to a man’s apartment or to have sexual relations. Men, on the other hand, were surprisingly willing to go to a strange woman’s apartment or to bed. (In fact, they were less willing to accept an invitation to date than to have sexual relations!)

Consistent with this interpretation were the subject’s reactions to the requests. In general, the female experimenters reported that men were at ease with the request. They would say “Why do we have to wait until tonight?” or “I cannot tonight, but tomorrow would be fine.” The men that said “No” even gave apologies, i.e., “I’m married” or “I’m going with someone.” In contrast, the woman’s response to the intimate requests from males was “You’ve got to be kidding,” or “What is wrong with you? Leave me alone.”

Of course the sociological interpretation - that women are interested in love while men are interested in sex - is not the only possible interpretation of these data. It may be, or course, that both men and women were equally interested in sex, but the men associated fewer risks with accepting a sexual invitation than did women. Men may be more confident of their ability to fight back a physical assault than are women. Also, the remnants of the double standard may make women afraid to accept the man’s invitation.

Regardless of why we secured these data, however, the existence of these pronounced gender differences is interesting.

Researchers may well choose to replicate this study sometime in the next five years to ascertain what impact the AIDS epidemic has on the preceding pattern of results. There is some anecdotal evidence that in such major cities as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, etc. both men and women have become extremely wary of casual sex (see Baum, 1987). This should, of course, markedly alter the preceding pattern of results. On the other hand, some researchers (Weinstein, 1980 and 1984) have found that young people still underestimate the riskiness of their “unsafe” sexual practises and that most young people tend to see themselves as invulnerable to negative events. In that case, the preceding pattern of results might be expected to continue into the future.

REFERENCES

Baum, A. (Ed.) (March 1987), Special issue on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17(3), 189-350.
Weinstein, N. D. (1980), Unrealistic optimism about future life events, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 806-820.
Weinstein, N. D. (1984), Why it won’t happen to me: Perception of risk factors and susceptibility, Health Psychology, 3, 431-457.
Winer, B. J. (1971), Statistical principles in experimental designs, New York: McGraw-Hill.